As courts decide controversies (спор, ссора; разногласия, расхождение во мнениях) they create an important by-product beyond the peaceful settlement (урегулирование; соглашение) of disputes, that is, the development of rules for future cases. Law is thus made not only by legislatures but also by the courts. To an extent that varies greatly between common-law and civil-law nations, all courts apply preexisting rules formulated by legislative bodies. In the course of doing so, they interpret those rules, sometimes distorting (искажать; искривлять, изгибать; коверкать) them, sometimes transforming them from generalities to specifics, sometimes filling gaps to cover situations never considered by the original lawmakers. The judicial decisions embodying these interpretations then become controlling for future cases, sometimes to the extent of virtually supplanting (вытеснить; занять (чье-л.) место) the legislative enactments themselves. This is one aspect of the doctrine of precedent, or, as it is sometimes called stare decisis (literally, “to stand by decided matters”). Judges follow earlier decisions, not only to save themselves the effort of working out fresh solutions for the same problems each time they recur but also, and primarily, because their goal is to render uniform and stable justice. If one individual is dealt with in a certain way today, the theory is that another individual engaging in substantially identical conduct under substantially identical conditions tomorrow or a month or year hence should be dealt with in the same way. This, reduced to its essentials, is all that legislative enactment means.
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The history of banking began with the first prototype banks which were the merchants of the world, who gave grain loans to farmers and traders who carried goods between cities. This was around 2000 BC in Assyria, India and Sumeria. Later, in ancient Greece and during the Roman Empire, lenders based in temples gave loans, while accepting deposits and performing the change of money. Archaeology from this period in ancient China and India also shows evidence of money lending.
Many histories position the crucial historical development of a banking system to medieval and Renaissance Italy and particularly the affluent cities of Florence, Venice and Genoa. The Bardi and Peruzzi Families dominated banking in 14th century Florence, establishing branches in many other parts of Europe.The most famous Italian bank was the Medici Bank, established by Giovanni Medici in 1397. The oldest bank still in existence is Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena, headquartered in Siena, Italy, which has been operating continuously since 1472. Until the end of 2019, the oldest bank still in operation was the Banco di Napoli headquartered in Naples, Italy which had been operating since 1463.
Development of banking spread from northern Italy throughout the Holy Roman Empire, and in the 15th and 16th century to northern Europe. This was followed by a number of important innovations that took place in Amsterdam during the Dutch Republic in the 17th century, and in London since the 18th century. During the 20th century, developments in telecommunications and computing caused major changes to banks' operations and let banks dramatically increase in size and geographic spread. The financial crisis of 2007–2008 caused many bank failures, including some of the world's largest banks, and provoked much debate about bank regulation.
1. My working day begins at eight o'clock.
2. I get up, switch on the radio and do my morning exercises.
3. It takes me fifteen minutes.
4. At half past seven we have breakfast.
5. My father and I leave home at eight o'clock.
6. He takes a bus to his factory.
7. My mother is a doctor, she leaves home at nine o'clock.
8. In the evening we gather in the living room.
9. We watch TV and talk.
10. My brother gets up at seven o'clock.
11. She is a schoolgirl.
12. He goes to school in the afternoon.
13. John is fond of sports.
14. He does her morning exercises every day.
15. For breakfast he has two eggs, a sandwich and a cup of tea.
16. After breakfast he goes to school.
17. It takes him two hours to do his homework.
18. He speaks French well