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EARLY INDIAN LITERATURE
Indian literature begins with the orally transmitted myths, legends, tales, and lyrics
(always songs) of American Indian cultures. There was no written literature among the more
than 500 different Indian languages and tribal cultures that existed in North America before
the first Europeans arrived.
Tribes maintained their own religions — worshipping gods, animals, plants, or sacred
persons. These tribal variations enter into the oral literature as well.
Still, it is possible to make a few generalizations. Indian stories, for example, glow
with reverence for nature as a spiritual as well as physical mother. Nature is alive and
endowed with spiritual forces; main characters may be animals or plants, often totems
associated with a tribe, group, or individual.
The Mexican tribes revered, a god of the Toltecs and Aztecs, and some tales of a high
god or culture were told elsewhere. However, there are no long, standardized religious
cycles about one supreme divinity. The closest equivalents to Old World spiritual narratives
are often accounts of shamans' initiations and voyages. These tricksters are treated with
varying degrees of respect. In one tale they may act like heroes, while in another they may
seem selfish or foolish.
Examples of almost every oral genre can be found in American Indian literature:
lyrics, chants, myths, fairy tales, humorous anecdotes, proverbs, epics, and legendary
histories. Accounts of migrations and ancestors abound, as do vision or healing songs and
tricksters' tales. Certain creation stories are particularly popular.
The songs or poetry, like the narratives, range from the sacred to the light and
humorous. There are lullabies, war chants, love songs, and special songs for children's
games, gambling various chores, magic, or dance ceremonials. Generally the songs are
repetitive. Short poem songs given in dreams sometimes have the clean imagery and mood
associated with Japanese haiku or Eastern- influenced imagistic poetry.
I insist that you do your homework. You ___ must do your homework.
2. Will you let me speak to David, please? ___May I speak to David,
please?
3. Talking is not permitted during the test. You _can talk during the
test.
4. It isn’t possible for him to come to the party. He _may come to the
party.
5. It’s forbidden to feed the animals in the Zoo. You _can feed the
animals in the Zoo.
6. Would you mind if I read your book? May___ I read your book?
7. Perhaps they’ll come with us. They ___must come with us.
8. Would you mind if I use your glasses? May I use your glasses?
9. Perhaps, she will phone them today. She ___must phone them today.
10. Perhaps, she is asleep now. She must be asleep now.
11. I don’t want anyone to know it. You __can tell anyone.
12. Listen! I __can hear someone crying.
13. You___can___ be a member of the library before you can borrow books.
14. I see your passport, please?
15. Don’t tell anybody what I said. You __must___ keep it secret.
1. I will phone her tomorrow. (When? Who?) 2. We will hold a seminar on his problem in two days. (When? What? Who?) 3. The exam will start at 8.30 tomorrow, (What time? When? What?) 4. They will learn Spanish next year. (When? What? Who?) 5. I will write to you every day. (How often? Who?) 6. She will do information technology at the university. (Where? What? Who?) 7. My classmates will have a talk with the Head of the Department tomorrow. (Who? When? Whose? What?) 8. They will have their teaching practice at school next term. (What? When? Where? Who?) 9. Dr. Smith will lecture at our university for two terms. (Where? How long? Who?) 10. Students will have a vacation in two weeks. (What? When? How many?)