semachelovekgood2

14.10.2022 08:33 •  Английский язык

In “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” (1962), American philosopher and historian Thomas Kuhn made a distinction between what he
called normal science and episodes of scientific revolution. He
(1) … … … … … as the process of solving puzzles within the paradigms
currently established for one’s particular science. For instance, in astronomy, it has been believed for centuries that the planets orbited around the
Earth (the geocentric model) and complex models and calculations were
(2) … … … … … to try to explain the observed movements of the planets
within this model. (3) … … … … … , scientific revolutions involve challenging or changing the dominant paradigms, as Polish astronomer Nicolaus
Copernicus did when he proposed a heliocentric universe in which the Earth
as well as the other planets orbited around the sun. Most science in any time
period is normal science, with people working (4) … … … … … that includes methods, assumptions about nature, symbolic generations, and paradigmatic experiments. Even observations that do not seem to fit the
existing paradigm will be explained within it (as planetary motion was for
centuries in the geocentric model) or ignored as anomalies. At some point,
however, the contradictions and anomalies may become too (5) … … … … … and trigger a scientific revolution, as happened in the
16th century in Europe (notably not recognized by a powerful social institution, the Catholic Church, until centuries later).
2. Most scientists and technical employees today are analogous to normal scientists, working (6) … … … … … or to illuminate small areas of
knowledge within a given scientific model. For instance, many scientists in
the United States are employees of corporations, government agencies, and
so on, and are expected to work within accepted models rather than challenge them. This (7) … … … … … conflict between the scientist’s desire
for autonomy and the organization’s desire for practical results, and can stifle innovation that could lead ultimately to greater breakthroughs. One way
this problem is dealt with is to have people specialize in either basic or
(8) … … … … … , with different evaluative criteria for each, and to have
part of an organization’s budget reserved for basic research that may challenge the existing paradigm rather than work within it.
3. Another conflict for scientists and technical employees, particularly
those working in for-profit companies, is their desire (9) … … … … … to
others versus their employers’ desire to keep such discoveries confidential in order to protect their profitability. (10) … … … … … is
intended to allow both desires to be met. The purpose of the patent system is
to stimulate scientific and technical invention by reserving the right to profit
from a discovery for a period of years to the patent holder (which may be an
individual or organization such as a company or university) while also making the information from the discovery public so that others may learn from
it. The patent holder may sell or license the right for others to use his or her
discoveries and collect fees from them

A) to discover practical applications F) to communicate their discoveries
B) within an existing framework G) lead to
C) develop H) obvious
D) to define normal science I) applied science
E) patent law J) in contrast