Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in psychology. According to this theory, personality develops in 8 stages. In each stage people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. Conflicts are centred on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. Each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. So, the stages are:
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth – 1 year)
This is the most fundamental stage in life. Any infant is very dependent, so the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers. If a child successfully develops trust, he feels safe and secure in the world. Failure to develop trust results in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (early childhood)
Children develop a greater sense of personal control. Learning to control one’s body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. For example toilet training, food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection are a vital part of this process. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, others feel inadequacy and self-doubt.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (preschool years)
Children assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interaction. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (early school years)
5-11-years-old children socially interact and develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers doubt their ability to be successful.
5. Identity vs. Confusion (adolescence)
Children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. Successful persons gain strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood)
People explore personal relationships. Those who are successful develop close and secure relationships. Those who fail can suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (adulthood)
People continue to build their lives, focusing on their career and family. Successful men feel they contribute to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (old age)
Elderly people reflect back on life. At this stage unsuccessful people feel that their life has been wasted and feel many regrets, bitterness and despair. Those who are proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These people get wisdom, even when confronting death.
History is important: every day, we are reminded of the power of the past to shape our lives and the society we live in, be it a family, nation, culture, religion, or some other historically constituted community. The way we understand history shapes our present and how we view the world and affects how we understand reality and our own futures. A proper understanding of how history shapes the present and the future is paramount to engaging and understanding the world around us. There are a lot of events in history that changed the face of the world. Some of the events cover just a few years, while others cover centuries. Some impacted only a single country or continent, while others spread out and touched every continent on earth. Some are violent conflicts like wars or revolutions, while others were scientific revolutions of the mind that brought human beings around to whole new ways of thinking and living. But no matter their differences, each of these events left behind a brave new world in their wake. For the sake of historical and scientific objectivity and accuracy, this list will exclude mythological events such as the Trojan War. This list will also exclude religious matters such as the life of Muhammad or Jesus of Nazareth.
One of the events that changed the world is medical revolution. The work of Louis Pasteur led to a wide acceptance of the germ theory of disease, which allowed for cures for many infectious diseases to be developed in the 19th century. The invention of vaccines eliminated horrific diseases like smallpox from the face of the earth and immunized children against polio and rabies. Public health measures were passed as the growing populations of cities made systematic sanitation necessary. Alexander Fleming invented Penicillin as the first real antibiotic in 1928, which proved to be effective against many deadly bacterial infections. These developments, along with advances in technology, chemistry, and biology, led to the age of modern medicine.
2)Had you done the task before you went out to meet with your friends? – Ты сделал задание пред тем, как идти встречаться со своими друзьями?
3)Had they already seen those photographs which you wanted to show them? – Они уже видели те фотогрфии, которые ты хотел им показать
4)Had he sung all songs from the album or just some of them when you turned on the TV? – Он спел все песни из альбома или только некоторые из них, когда ты включил телевизор?
5)Had Molly gone away alone or with her sister when you came to see them? – Молли уехала одна или с сестрой, когда ты пришел их навестить?